Tag Archives: Cannabinoids

ROLE OF THE ENDOCANNABINOID SYSTEM IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOLERANCE TO ALCOHOL

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“Alcohol dependence is a leading cause of morbidity and various medical and socio-economic problems. It is defined by compulsive, excessive use of alcohol despite negative consequences. Alcohol dependence is usually accompanied by tolerance to the intoxicating effects of alcohol and by withdrawal symptoms including tremors and confusion when consumption of alcohol ceases. Although important advances have been made in recent years in understanding the mechanisms underlying the development of tolerance to and dependence on alcohol, the exact mechanisms are still elusive. The present article reviews the role played by the endocannabinoid system in the molecular mechanism involved in the development of alcohol tolerance, which possibly influences alcohol-drinking behaviour.”

“The present review evaluates the evidence that the endocannabinoid system plays in the development of tolerance to alcohol. The identification of a G-protein-coupled receptor, namely, the cannabinoid receptor (CB1 receptor), which was activated by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the major psychoactive component of marijuana, led to the discovery of endogenous cannabinoid agonists. Until now, four fatty acid derivatives identified to be arachidonylethanolamide (AEA), 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG), 2-arachidonylglycerol ether (noladin ether) and virodhamine have been isolated from both nervous and peripheral tissues. Both AEA and 2-AG have been shown to mimic the pharmacological and behavioural effects of Δ9-THC. The role of the endocannabinoid system in the development of tolerance to alcohol was not known until recently. Recent studies from our laboratory have implicated for the first time a role for the endocannabinoid system in development of tolerance to alcohol. Chronic alcohol treatment has been shown to down-regulate CB1 receptors and its signal transduction. The observed downregulation of CB1 receptor function results from the persistent stimulation of the receptors by AEA and 2-AG, the synthesis of which has been shown to be increased by chronic alcohol treatment. The enhanced formation of endocannabinoids may subsequently influence the release of neurotransmitters. It was found that the DBA/2 mice, known to avoid alcohol intake, have significantly reduced CB1 receptor function in the brain, consistent with other studies in which the CB1 receptor antagonist SR 141716A has been shown to block voluntary alcohol intake in rodents. Similarly, activation of the CB1 receptor system promoted alcohol craving, suggesting a role for the CB1 receptor gene in excessive alcohol drinking behaviour and development of alcoholism. Ongoing investigations may lead to a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the development of tolerance to alcohol and to develop therapeutic strategies to treat alcoholism.”

“CONCLUSION

Over the past seven years, remarkable advances have been made towards our understanding of the role played by the endocannabinoid system in the development of alcohol tolerance and alcohol-drinking behaviour. These studies have provided strong evidence that CB1 receptors and the endocannabinoid system serve as an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of alcohol tolerance and alcohol-related disorders. The data reviewed here provide convincing evidence that alcohol tolerance involves the downregulation of the CB1 receptor and its function. The observed neuro-adaptation may be due to increased accumulation of the endocannabinoids AEA and 2-AG. Treatment with the CB1 receptor antagonist SR 141716A led to reduced consumption of alcohol in rodents and activation of the same endogenous cannabinoid systems by the CB1 receptor agonist promoted alcohol craving, which may be related to the change in the levels of dopamine in the NAc. Further, reduced alcohol intake by the CB1 receptor knockout mice is consistent with our previous observation that significantly lower levels of functional CB1 receptors are found in the alcohol-avoiding DBA/2 mouse strain compared with the alcohol-preferring C57BL/6 mouse strain. These observations suggest the involvement of the CB1 receptors in controlling voluntary alcohol consumption and the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the development of alcohol tolerance. However, further studies are necessary to unfold the exact mechanism by which alcohol exerts its pharmacological and behavioural effects through the endocannabinoid system. The investigation of the detailed signalling cascade for the actions of both endocannabinoids and CB1 receptors will be of great value in understanding their physiological and functional role in several neurological disorders, voluntary alcohol intake and alcohol craving, including the behavioural neuroadaptation to alcohol. Such studies may also lead to the development of endocannabinoid signalling-targeted drugs, which may help to reduce both alcohol intake and alcohol craving. These results suggest that the cannabinoid antagonist, SR 141716A, may be useful as a potential therapeutic agent in alcohol dependence.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15550443

http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/1/15.long

The endocannabinoid signaling system: a potential target for next-generation therapeutics for alcoholism

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“Alcoholism is a complex disorder affecting modern society in many ways, yet there are few effective treatment strategies currently available.”

“Research into the endocannabinoid signaling system has grown exponentially in recent years following the discovery of cannabinoid receptors (CB) and their endogenous ligands, such as anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). Important advances have been made in our understanding of the endocannabinoid signaling system in various aspects of alcoholism, including alcohol-seeking behavior. Alcohol increases the synthesis or impairs the degradation of endocannabinoids, leading to a locally elevated endocannabinoid tone within the brain. Elevated endocannabinoid tone might be expected to result in compensatory down-regulation of CB1 receptors or dampened signal transduction. Following release, endocannabinoids diffuse back to the presynaptic neuron where they act as short-range modulators of synaptic activity by altering neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Mice treated with the CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant) or homozygous for a deletion of the CB1 receptor gene exhibit reduced voluntary alcohol intake. CB1 knockout mice also show increased alcohol sensitivity, withdrawal, and reduced conditioned place preference. Conversely, activation of CB1 receptor promotes alcohol intake. Recent studies also suggest that elevated endocannabinoid tone due to impaired degradation contributes to high alcohol preference and self-administration. These effects are reversed by local administration of rimonabant, suggesting the participation of the endocannabinoid signaling system in high alcohol preference and self-administration. These recent advances will be reviewed with an emphasis on the endocannabinoid signaling system for possible therapeutic interventions of alcoholism.”

“Overwhelmingly, recent studies suggest that cannabinoids and alcohol activate similar reward pathways. The CB1 receptors also seem to regulate the reinforcing properties of alcohol. The discovery of cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands set a landmark in cannabinoid research. These discoveries impacted significantly on alcohol research, too, since there is now considerable evidence that endocannabinoid signaling plays a key role in alcohol addiction, and this has promising clinical consequences. The purpose of this article is to analyze the interaction between alcohol and endocannabinoid signaling, paying particular attention to the reward mechanism. Therapeutic aspects driving from these new insights are also discussed.”

“THERAPEUTIC OPPORTUNITY”

“Although the detailed physiology, biochemistry and pathophysiology of the endocannabinoid signaling system have not been fully investigated, there is already overwhelming evidence to indicate that pharmacological modulation of the endocannabinoid signaling system could provide new treatments for a number of disease states, including alcohol addiction. Recently it was reported that rimonabant holds an important therapeutic role in treating liver fibrosis and alcohol abuse accounts for more than half of the prevalence of liver fibrosis and cirrhosis in the western world. Therefore, it is important to examine whether alcohol-induced liver fibrosis and cirrhosis results in increased endocannabinoid levels and rimonabant reverses alcohol-induced liver fibrosis/cirrhosis. In terms of drug development, the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant has progressed furthest and is in late phase III trials for the treatment of obesity and as an aid for smoking cessation. An NIAAA clinical study of the effectiveness of rimonabant to reduce voluntary alcohol drinking has progressed to phase I trials. Pending results of the clinical trials, rimonabant could become an important addition to the limited arsenal of effective treatments for alcoholism. During drug abuse there are changes in endocannabinoid levels in various brain regions. Therefore, drugs which regulate the level of endocannabinoids by inhibiting their metabolism (FAAH inhibitors such as URB597) or uptake (AM404) could locally target sites while limiting effects in uninvolved cognitive areas to produce a higher therapeutic value. Cannabinoid interactions with the dopamine system have been offered as a possible mechanism for some of the therapeutic potential of cannabinoid-based drugs in alcoholism. A recent study provides evidence of the ability of CB1 receptor antagonist to mitigate alcohol-withdrawal symptoms, and block the formation of physical dependency by inhibiting alcohol intake. Recent data on the role of CB1 receptors in alcohol drinking behavior, including alcohol tolerance as discussed in the earlier sections, clearly suggest that agents such as CB1 receptor antagonists, including rimonabant, will be promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of alcoholism.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1975858/

The Endogenous Cannabinoid System Modulates Nicotine Reward and Dependence

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Abstract

“A growing body of evidence suggests that the endogenous cannabinoid system modulates the addictive properties of nicotine, the main component of tobacco that produces rewarding effects. In our study, complementary transgenic and pharmacological approaches were used to test the hypothesis that the endocannabinoid system modulates nicotine reward and dependence. An acute injection of nicotine elicited normal analgesic and hypothermic effects in cannabinoid receptor (CB)(1) knockout (KO) mice and mice treated with the CB(1) antagonist rimonabant. However, disruption of CB(1) receptor signaling blocked nicotine reward, as assessed in the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. In contrast, genetic deletion, or pharmacological inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the enzyme responsible for catabolism of the endocannabinoid anandamide, enhanced the expression of nicotine CPP. Although the expression of spontaneous nicotine withdrawal (14 days, 24 mg/kg/day nicotine) was unaffected in CB(1) KO mice, acute administration of rimonabant (3 mg/kg) ameliorated somatic withdrawal signs in wild-type mice. Increasing endogenous levels of anandamide through genetic or pharmacological approaches exacerbated the physical somatic signs of spontaneous nicotine withdrawal in a milder withdrawal model (7 days, 24 mg/kg/day nicotine). Moreover, FAAH-compromised mice displayed increased conditioned place aversion in a mecamylamine-precipitated model of nicotine withdrawal. These findings indicate that endocannabinoids play a role in the rewarding properties of nicotine as well as nicotine dependence liability. Specifically, increasing endogenous cannabinoid levels magnifies, although disrupting CB(1) receptor signaling, attenuates nicotine reward and withdrawal. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that cannabinoid receptor antagonists may offer therapeutic advantages to treat tobacco dependence.”

“In conclusion, we have shown that the endocannabinoid system modulates various aspects of nicotine dependence in a differential way. Indeed, FAAH inhibition dramatically enhances nicotine reward through a CB1 mechanism that is most likely due to elevated levels of AEA. Moreover, our findings indicate that endogenous cannabinoid tone indirectly modulates the development of nicotine addiction by affecting the balance between the rewarding and aversive properties of nicotine.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2746999/

Cannabinoid type 1 receptor antagonists (rimonabant) for smoking cessation.

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“BACKGROUND:

Rimonabant is a selective type 1 cannabinoid (CB1) receptor antagonist. It may assist with smoking cessation by restoring the balance of the endocannabinoid system, which can be disrupted by prolonged use of nicotine. Rimonabant also seeks to address many smokers’ reluctance to persist with a quit attempt because of concerns about weight gain.”

“OBJECTIVES:

To determine whether selective CB1 receptor antagonists increase the numbers of people stopping smoking. To assess their effects on weight change in successful quitters and in those who try to quit but fail.”

“AUTHORS’ CONCLUSIONS:

From the preliminary trial reports available, rimonabant 20 mg may increase the odds of quitting approximately 1(1/2)-fold. Adverse events include nausea and upper respiratory tract infections; the risk of serious adverse events is reported to be low. However, there is current concern (August 2007) over rates of depression and suicidal thoughts in people taking rimonabant for weight control. The evidence for rimonabant in maintaining abstinence is inconclusive. Rimonabant 20 mg may moderate weight gain in the long term.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17943852

Cannabinoid type 1 receptor antagonists for smoking cessation.

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Abstract

“BACKGROUND:

Selective type 1 cannabinoid (CB1) receptor antagonists may assist with smoking cessation by restoring the balance of the endocannabinoid system, which can be disrupted by prolonged use of nicotine. They also seeks to address many smokers’ reluctance to persist with a quit attempt because of concerns about weight gain.”

“OBJECTIVES:

To determine whether selective CB1 receptor antagonists (currently rimonabant and taranabant) increase the numbers of people stopping smoking To assess their effects on weight change in successful quitters and in those who try to quit but fail.”

“AUTHORS’ CONCLUSIONS:

From the trial reports available, rimonabant 20 mg may increase the chances of quitting approximately 1½-fold. The evidence for rimonabant in maintaining abstinence is inconclusive. Rimonabant 20 mg may moderate weight gain in the long term. Taranabant 2-8 mg may moderate weight gain, at least in the short term. In 2008, development of both rimonabant and taranabant was discontinued by the manufacturers.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21412887

A Role for the Endocannabinoid System in the Increased Motivation for Cocaine in Extended Access Conditions

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 “Extended access to cocaine produces an increase in cocaine self-administration in rats that mimics aspects of compulsive drug intake in human addicts. While emerging evidence implicates the endogenous cannabinoid system in aspects of opioid and ethanol addiction, a role of the endocannabinoid system in cocaine addiction remains largely inconclusive. Here, we investigate the effects of systemic and intra-accumbal administration of the CB1 antagonist SR141716A (Rimonabant) on cocaine self-administration (0.5 mg/kg/infusion) under a progressive ratio (PR) schedule in rats with extended (long access, LgA; 6 h/day) or limited (short access, ShA; 1 h/day) access to cocaine. LgA rats, but not ShA rats showed an increase in cocaine intake as previously reported, and responding for cocaine by LgA rats was higher than in ShA rats under a PR schedule. Systemic SR141716A induced a dramatic dose-dependent decrease in the break-point for cocaine by LgA rats, whereas only the highest dose of the antagonist had a significant effect in the ShA group. Anandamide levels in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell were decreased in ShA rats but unchanged in LgA rats during cocaine self-administration. Both phosphorylated and total CB1 receptor protein expression were upregulated in LgA rats in the NAc and the amygdala compared to ShA and drug-naïve rats, 24 h after last cocaine session. Finally, intra-NAc infusions of SR141716A reduced cocaine break-points selectively in LgA animals. These results suggest that neuroadaptations in the endogenous cannabinoid system may be part of the neuroplasticity associated with the development of cocaine addiction.”

“Taken together, our results suggest that eCB system neuroplasticity in the NAc may contribute to the motivational drive for cocaine associated with uncontrolled psychostimulant use and, therefore, may be a target for cocaine addiction pharmacotherapies.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2688678/

A cannabinoid mechanism in relapse to cocaine seeking.

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Abstract

“Treatment of cocaine addiction is hampered by high rates of relapse even after prolonged drug abstinence. This relapse to compulsive cocaine use can be triggered by re-exposure to cocaine, by re-exposure to stimuli previously associated with cocaine or by exposure to stress. In laboratory rats, similar events reinstate cocaine seeking after prolonged withdrawal periods, thus providing a model to study neuronal mechanisms underlying the relapse to cocaine. The endocannabinoid system has been implicated in a number of neuropsychiatric conditions, including drug addiction. The active ingredient of marijuana, Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, activates the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) reward system and has rewarding effects in preclinical models of drug abuse. We report here that the synthetic cannabinoid agonist, HU210 (ref. 13), provokes relapse to cocaine seeking after prolonged withdrawal periods. Furthermore, the selective CB1 receptor antagonist, SR141716A (ref. 14), attenuates relapse induced by re-exposure to cocaine-associated cues or cocaine itself, but not relapse induced by exposure to stress. These data reveal an important role of the cannabinoid system in the neuronal processes underlying relapse to cocaine seeking, and provide a rationale for the use of cannabinoid receptor antagonists for the prevention of relapse to cocaine use.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11590440

Modulation Of The Endo-Cannabinoid System: Therapeutic Potential Against Cocaine Dependence

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 “Dependence on cocaine is still a main unresolved medical and social concern, and in spite of research efforts, no pharmacological therapy against cocaine dependence is yet available. Recent studies have shown that the endocannabinoid system participates in specific stages and aspects of drug dependence in general, and some of this evidence suggests an involvement of the cannabinoid system in cocaine effects. For example, cocaine administration has been shown to alter brain endocannabinoid levels, and the endocannabinoid system has been involved in long-term modifications of brain processes that might play a role in neuro/behavioral effects of psychostimulant drugs like cocaine. Human studies show that marijuana dependence is frequently associated with cocaine dependence, and that the cannabinoid receptor CNR1 gene polymorphism might be related to cocaine addiction. This article will review the main papers in the field showing how a modulation of different components of the cannabinoid system might interact with some of the neurobiological/behavioral effects of cocaine related to its reinforcing effects, evaluated in preclinical models or in clinical settings. The goal of this review will be to provide insights into the complex picture of cocaine abuse and addiction, and to extrapolate from such endocannabinoid-cocaine interactions useful information to test the therapeutic potential of cannabinoid ligands and endocannabinoid-level enhancers against cocaine dependence for future preclinical/clinical trials.”

“Summary and concluding remarks

Most of the scientific articles reviewed in the present manuscript have described studies of cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonists and antagonists tested against cocaine effects in preclinical models thought to be predictive of cocaine abuse. These studies have provided interesting results, especially for the ability of cannabinoid antagonists, and Rimonabant in particular, to significantly counteract some of the reinforcing actions of cocaine (104, 143). Collectively, the studies suggest that a cannabinoid tone, impaired by cannabinoid antagonist administration, is indeed involved in many of the reinforcing effects of cocaine which are believed to be responsible for cocaine abuse and addiction. On the other hand, there are no studies available showing interactions of drugs acting as cannabinoid levels modulators/enhancers on cocaine-induced behaviors. These drugs affecting directly the endogenous cannabinoid tone could interfere with cocaine effects in these preclinical procedures and could substantially increase our knowledge about the cannabinoid-neurobiology related to cocaine dependence.”

“Suggestions about possible genetic predisposition/vulnerability to cocaine dependence from human studies due to variants of the cannabinoid receptor CNR1 gene have given more strength to the link between endocannabinoids and cocaine. Due to the widespread distribution of cannabinoid receptors in the brain, and their abundance in brain areas playing pivotal roles in drug abuse and addiction, the different expression and regulation of cannabinoid receptors induced by genetic differences might be an important factor in the predisposition or vulnerability to drug dependence. For this reason, the potential to directly interact with endocannabinoid tone in selected brain areas, an effect that can be obtained with endocannabinoid uptake inhibitors or metabolism blockers (as shown also in genetically modified mice, 170), as compared to widespread actions of cannabinoid receptors agonists/antagonists, should be one of the next challenges in the research for medications able to counteract the abuse- and dependence-related behavioral/neurobiological effects of cocaine.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2134985/

Enhancement of endocannabinoid neurotransmission through CB1 cannabinoid receptors counteracts the reinforcing and psychostimulant effects of cocaine.

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Abstract

“Cannabinoids, in contrast to typical drugs of abuse, have been shown to exert complex effects on behavioural reinforcement and psychomotor function. We have shown that cannabinoid agonists lack reinforcing/rewarding properties in the intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) paradigm and that the CB1 receptor (CB1R) agonist WIN55,212-2 attenuates the reward-facilitating actions of cocaine. We sought to determine the effects of the endocannabinoid neurotransmission enhancer AM-404 (1, 3, 10, 30 mg/kg) on the changes in ICSS threshold and locomotion elicited by cocaine and extend the study of the effects of WIN55,212-2 (0.3, 1, 3 mg/kg) on cocaine-induced hyperlocomotion. AM-404 did not exhibit reward-facilitating properties, and actually increased self-stimulation threshold at the highest dose. Cocaine significantly reduced self-stimulation threshold, without altering maximal rates of responding. AM-404 (10 mg/kg) attenuated this action of cocaine, an effect which was reversed by pretreatment with the selective CB1R antagonist SR141716A. WIN55,212-2 decreased locomotion at the two highest doses, an effect that was blocked by SR141716A; AM-404 had no effect on locomotion. Cocaine caused a significant, dose-dependent increase in locomotion, which was reduced by WIN55,212-2 and AM-404. SR141716A blocked the effects of WIN55,212-2 and AM-404 on cocaine-induced hyperlocomotion. SR141716A alone had no effect on ICSS threshold or locomotion. These results indicate that cannabinoids may interfere with brain reward systems responsible for the expression of acute reinforcing/rewarding properties of cocaine, and provide further evidence that the cannabinoid system could be explored as a potential drug discovery target for the treatment of psychostimulant addiction and pathological states associated with psychomotor overexcitability.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18377702

The role of endocannabinoid transmission in cocaine addiction.

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Abstract

“Research is beginning to outline a role for the endocannabinoid system in cocaine addiction. Human and animal studies indicate that exogenous cannabinoids modulate the acute rewarding effects of cocaine. These studies, however, cannot directly investigate the necessity of endocannabinoid transmission in cocaine addiction. Studies that do offer a direct assessment show that neither pharmacological antagonism nor deletion of the CB1 receptor alters the acute rewarding effects of cocaine. In contrast, CB1 receptors appear to be involved in the association of cocaine reward with environmental cues and reinstatement of cocaine self-administration. Together, these results point to CB1 receptor antagonists as potential anti-craving compounds in the treatment of cocaine addiction. Given the limitations of human population studies, animal research may be useful in discerning causal inferences between cannabis and cocaine use. While animal research suggests cannabis use may precipitate cocaine relapse, cross-sensitization between cannabinoids and cocaine has not been demonstrated and CB1 receptors do not mediate behavioral sensitization to cocaine. The effect of acute or chronic cocaine on endocannabinoid transmission in reward-related areas of the brain is relatively under-researched. Acute cocaine administration increases anandamide levels in the striatum, an effect that is mediated by dopamine D2-like receptors. Conversely, chronic cocaine exposure has no effect on anandamide, but decreases 2-arachidonylglycerol levels in the limbic forebrain. This review highlights research indicating that the endocannabinoid system may subserve certain aspects of cocaine addiction and suggests avenues for future investigation.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15925401