Category Archives: Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Unveiling Neurological Benefits: A Review of Hemp Leaf, Flower, Seed Oil Extract, and Their Phytochemical Properties in Neurological Disorders

Posted on by

“Neurological disorders such as epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis present significant global health care challenges, with complex pathophysiology and limited therapeutic options that often carry substantial side effects.

Hemp-derived compounds, particularly from Cannabis sativa seeds, leaves, and flowers, have gained attention for their potential neuroprotective properties.

This review aims to synthesize the current evidence surrounding the therapeutic benefits of hemp-derived compounds, focusing on their bioactive phytochemical profiles, mechanisms of action, and therapeutic efficacy in treating neurological disorders.

A comprehensive review of pre-clinical and clinical studies was conducted, analyzing the phytochemical composition of hemp extracts, including cannabinoids (such as cannabidiol, CBD), terpenes, flavonoids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. We explored their mechanisms of action through interactions with the endocannabinoid system, neurotransmitter receptors, inflammatory pathways, and oxidative stress mechanisms.

The review highlights the therapeutic potential of hemp-derived extracts in mitigating various neurological conditions. Pre-clinical and clinical studies have demonstrated their efficacy in reducing seizure frequency in epilepsy, protecting dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease, alleviating neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in Alzheimer’s disease, and promoting remyelination in multiple sclerosis.

The entourage effect, where cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids work synergistically, enhances these therapeutic effects. Innovations in extraction technologies have optimized yield and preserved bioactivity, further enhancing clinical relevance.

Hemp-derived compounds exhibit significant neuroprotective and therapeutic potential for managing neurological disorders. However, challenges such as product standardization, safety profiles, and regulatory frameworks must be addressed for clinical translation. Further research is essential to optimize dosing, establish safety parameters, and develop standardized formulations, which will be crucial for fully harnessing the therapeutic potential of hemp-derived products in treating neurological conditions.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41468178

https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1177/25785125251410822


Cannabidiol as a Neuroprotective Agent in Acrylamide-Induced Neurotoxicity: Effects on Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Cholinergic Function in Male Mice

Posted on by

“The neuroprotective potential of cannabidiol (CBD) was assessed in a mouse model of acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity.

Acrylamide (AA), an environmental and dietary pollutant, is known to cross the blood-brain barrier and induce oxidative stress, inflammation and neurotoxic effects.

Male C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned to four groups: Control (Con), Acrylamide (AA), Cannabidiol (CBD), and a combination treatment (AA + CBD). The AA group received acrylamide (10 mg/kg, i.p.) daily for 5 days. CBD was administered (10 mg/kg, i.p.) for 10 days in the CBD and AA + CBD groups. In the AA + CBD group, acrylamide (10 mg/kg, i.p.) was co-administered during the last 5 days of CBD treatment.

Behavioral outcomes were analyzed using the open field test, revealing that CBD mitigated anxiety-like behavior induced by acrylamide, enhancing movement and center exploration. Further, CBD treatment modulated oxidative stress responses, reducing MDA levels and partially restoring antioxidant markers (GSH, SOD, and CAT) in the hippocampus and striatum. Inflammatory markers were also assessed, revealing that acrylamide elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6.

Notably, CBD co-treatment reduced TNF-α levels in the hippocampus and cortex and attenuated IL-6 levels in the cortex and striatum, suggesting an anti-inflammatory effect. Additionally, CBD modulated neuroplasticity by increasing BDNF levels in the hippocampus, counteracting the reduction caused by acrylamide. CBD also influenced cholinergic activity by restoring Ach levels and altering AChE activity across brain regions.

Findings suggest that CBD exhibits neuroprotective properties by reducing oxidative stress, inflammation and cholinergic dysregulation, thereby offering a promising therapeutic approach for mitigating pollutant-induced neurotoxicity and potentially treating neurodegenerative disorders.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41395773

“By improving behavioral outcomes, reducing oxidative stress, modulating inflammation, enhancing neuroplasticity and preserving cholinergic function, CBD shows promise as a potential therapeutic approach for neurotoxic and neurodegenerative conditions. “

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jnr.70098

Investigating the effectiveness and adverse events of medicinal cannabis for patients with muscle spasticity or spasms

Posted on by

“Appropriate treatment of muscle spasticity and spasms is important as these conditions may significantly impair patients’ quality of life. Conventional pharmacological treatments for these conditions have poor effectiveness and/or tolerability.

Cannabis is being explored as a treatment.

This was a longitudinal study of patient use of different cannabis products. Data was collected from patient surveys, clinic records, and changes in Patient Reported Outcome Measures Information System 29-Item scores over time. Patient-reported responses on health-related quality of life adverse events (n = 150) and outcomes (n = 78) from treatment for spasticity or spasms were analyzed. No improvements in physical functioning were observed for either group of patients across all product types. However, patients with spasticity who were using cannabidiol-only products experienced an improvement in sleep disturbance, fatigue, pain interference, and pain intensity.

Patients with spasms who were using balanced, cannabidiol-dominant, or tetrahydrocannabinol-dominant products also experienced improvements in these 4 outcomes. Commonly reported adverse events were dry mouth, drowsiness, fatigue, dizziness, and nausea. Despite no observation of improvement in physical functioning, the results suggest that cannabis may help relieve some of the secondary complications associated with these conditions, such as poor sleep and pain.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This longitudinal study highlights differential benefits across cannabis product types, with cannabidiol-only formulations aiding spasticity-related symptoms and tetrahydrocannabinol- or cannabidiol-dominant products benefiting those with spasms.

These findings support the potential of cannabis as a potential therapy to improve health-related quality of life in patients with limited options from conventional pharmacological treatments.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41386046

https://jpet.aspetjournals.org/article/S0022-3565(25)40293-6/abstract


UK Medical Cannabis Registry: An Updated Analysis of Cannabis-Based Medicinal Products for Multiple Sclerosis

Posted on by

“Introduction: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease presenting with a wide range of motor, sensory, and psychiatric symptoms. Although nabiximols is licensed for MS-induced spasticity, cannabis-based medicinal products (CBMPs) have also displayed promising therapeutic potential for managing pain, sleep, and anxiety. Therefore, further evaluation of CBMP treatment for MS is warranted. This study aimed to assess the efficacy and tolerability of CBMP treatment in patients with MS by investigating changes in MS-specific and general health-related patient-reported outcome measures and adverse events.

Methods: This was a prospective case series including patients with MS enrolled on the UK Medical Cannabis Registry. Changes in MS Quality of Life-54 (MSQOL-54), Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), Single-Item Sleep Quality Scale (SQS), and EQ-5D-5L scores were assessed from baseline up to 24 months. The prevalence and severity of all adverse events were also assessed.

Results: This study included 203 patients, of whom 47.29% (n = 96) were female and 80.79% (n = 164) had prior cannabis exposure. Improvements in the MSQOL-54 subscales: change in health, energy, health distress, pain, physical function, and physical role limitations, along with improvements in SQS and EQ-5D-5L scores, were seen at all follow-up times compared to baseline (p < 0.050). A total of 278 adverse events were reported by 26 patients (12.81%). Most adverse events were mild (n = 91, 32.73%) or moderate (n = 138, 49.64%) in severity, with fatigue (n = 27, 13.30%) and spasticity (n = 17, 8.37%) being the most common.

Conclusion: CBMP treatment over 24 months was associated with improvements in health-related quality of life and was well tolerated in patients with MS. Future randomised controlled trials with more representative study populations are needed to establish causal relationships.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41357430

“There is increasing evidence for the involvement of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in modulating inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes.”

“Through interactions with the ECS, THC and CBD have displayed analgesic, muscle relaxant, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory properties in preclinical and clinical studies.”

“Therefore, cannabis-based medicinal products (CBMPs) containing these phytocannabinoids show promise for managing MS symptoms.”

“In conclusion, this observational study found CBMP treatment was associated with improvements in many HRQoL measures, including pain and sleep in patients with MS. Also, CBMP use over 2 years was generally well tolerated.”

https://karger.com/mca/article/8/1/201/938322/UK-Medical-Cannabis-Registry-An-Updated-Analysis

The Endocannabinoid System: Pharmacological Targets and Therapeutic Potential in CNS Disorders

Posted on by

“The endocannabinoid system (ECS) influences a wide range of brain functions, including synaptic transmission, neuroplasticity, emotion, and immune regulation within the central nervous system, with CB1 and CB2 receptors mediating various neurophysiological and pathophysiological outcomes. Thus, growing interest in its therapeutic potential has prompted extensive research into how cannabinoid receptors contribute to the pathophysiology of neurological and psychiatric disorders, particularly CB1 and CB2.

This review has integrated findings from studies published between 2015 and 2025, covering conditions, like depression, anxiety, pain, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson’s disease. We have also examined recent advances in receptor pharmacology and experimental technologies, including cryo-EM, optogenetics, and chemogenetics.

Although ECS-targeted therapeutics hold considerable promise, some key challenges remain in establishing safe and effective dosing protocols and integrating these approaches into clinical frameworks.

This review has provided an updated perspective on the system’s role in brain health and its potential to inform future therapeutic directions. Thus, ECS-targeted strategies may become increasingly important in managing and treating central nervous system disorders.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41178765/

https://www.eurekaselect.com/article/151549

Dysregulation of the endocannabinoid system – a key factor in the progression of multiple sclerosis?

Posted on by

“The endocannabinoid system has been implicated in the pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis (MS), yet its role across different disease stages and under disease-modifying treatment remains incompletely understood.

This study aimed to evaluate plasma levels of anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in patients with MS at different clinical stages, and to explore their associations with disability, cognition, and quality of life, as well as the potential influence of teriflunomide therapy.

Thirty participants were enrolled: ten healthy controls, ten newly diagnosed relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) patients in acute relapse, and ten teriflunomide-treated RRMS patients in remission. Plasma AEA and 2-AG were measured by ELISA; clinical assessments included the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the SF-36 quality-of-life questionnaire.

No significant group differences were observed overall in 2-AG (P > 0.05). AEA showed a non-significant overall group effect (ANOVA, P = 0.0919) with a trend toward lower AEA in newly diagnosed patients compared to healthy controls (mean difference = -5.95 ng/ml, SE = 2.66; P = 0.098). In the teriflunomide group, AEA and 2-AG were strongly positively correlated (r = 0.882, P < 0.001). Additionally, SF-36 scores were positively associated with MMSE (r = 0.706, P = 0.023). Furthermore, SF-36 total scores were significantly lower in newly diagnosed patients compared to controls (post-hoc P = 0.044).

These findings suggest possible early dysregulation of the endocannabinoid system in MS and indicate that teriflunomide treatment is associated with a strengthened AEA-2-AG relationship. Larger, longitudinal studies are warranted to confirm these observations and to assess clinical implications for disease progression and patient quality of life.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41178906/

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of the Stembark Essential Oils of Two Cannabis sativa L. Cultivars from Komga, South Africa

Posted on by

“Cannabis sativa L. is an aromatic medicinal plant with various biologically active classes of compounds such as cannabinoids, polyphenols, and terpenes.

Unlike the widely investigated inflorescence and leaf, the stembark of C. sativa has been overlooked regarding its medicinal potential. This study, therefore, was aimed at determining the chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the essential oils (EOs) obtained from the fresh and dried stembark of two C. sativa cultivars, Lifter and Cherrywine, grown in Komga, South Africa, with a view to ascertaining the more promising cultivar.

The chemical profiles of the hydro-distilled EOs were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), while an in vitro antioxidant activity assessment of the EOs was performed using DPPH and H2O2 spectrophotometric methods. The identified constituents from the EOs were molecularly docked against NOX2, a protein implicated in oxidative stress. The afforded EOs were colorless with a mild skunk-like odor. A total of thirty-two constituents were identified in both fresh and dry oils from the Lifter cultivar while the Cherrywine cultivar contained a total of forty-two constituents.

The EOs of both cultivars contained twenty compounds, notably Cannabidiol (0.25-85.03%), Caryophyllene oxide (1.27-19.58%), Caryophyllene (0.64-16.61%), Humulene (0.37-8.15%), Octacosane (3.37-6.55%), Humulene-1,2-epoxide (0.45-5.78%), Nerolidol (0.32-4.99%), Palmitic acid (1.45-4.45%), Tetracosane (1.75-2.91%), Dronabinol (0.86-2.86%), Cannabinol (0.54-1.64%), 7-epi-γ-eudesmol (0.53-1.00%), Guaiol (0.37-0.66%), Linoleic acid (0.22-0.60%), γ-Selinene (0.15-0.48%), β-Eudesmol (0.34-0.50%), and Linalool (0.24-0.30%).

The dried Lifter stembark oil (DLSO) gave the best antioxidant activity among the four investigated cannabis oils, exhibiting the lowest IC50 values of 21.68 ± 1.71 and 26.20 ± 1.34 µg/mL against DPPH and H2O2 radicals, respectively. The notable antioxidant activity of the DLSO may be attributed to the higher number (30) of constituents compared to the fresh Lifter stembark oil (LSO) with 11 constituents. Additionally, the DLSO showed a unique chemical profile comprising monoterpenes, oxygenated and hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes. Further in silico studies on the putative constituents in the Lifter cultivar revealed Cannabinol, Cannabidiol, and Linalool as the promising constituents based on their higher binding energy scores of -9.7, -8.5, and -6.5 kcal/mol, respectively, compared to L-Ascorbic acid (-5.7 kcal/mol).

It can be inferred from this study that the EOs from the stembark of C. sativa contain promising compounds, such as Cannabinol, Cannabidiol, and Linalool, which might be responsible for the displayed antioxidant activity of the oils. Thus, the study findings underscore the biological importance of C. sativa stembark in the management of oxidative stress-related conditions.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40943472/

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/17/8552

Oromucosal as an Alternative Method for Administration of Cannabis Products in Rodents

Posted on by
pubmed logo

“Oral administration of drugs in laboratory rodents such as rats is conventionally performed using the gavage technique. Despite effectiveness, gavage can induce distress associated with restraint, especially following repeated animal handling.

To mitigate these adverse effects and reduce morbidity associated with traditional methods, we explored oromucosal/buccal administration of cannabidiol (CBD)-enriched Cannabis extract.

In this method, male rats were treated daily for 15 days with medium-chain triglycerides (TCM) derived from coconut oil or CBD-enriched Cannabis extract. Each treatment was administered individually while animals were gently immobilized using an affectionate touch technique. The administration involved the use of a micropipette to apply the oily formulation directly into the oral mucosa. The dosage was calculated based on the CBD concentration in the Cannabis extract, standardized at 3 mg/kg/day. To ensure accuracy, animals were weighed daily, allowing for dose adjustments in accordance with weight changes over the treatment period. This method offers non-invasive and stress-reducing treatment, potentially improving animal welfare in experimental settings.

The treatment with CBD-enriched Cannabis extract was safe, and the analysis of the hippocampus of these animals’ showed alterations in the expression levels of GluA1 and GFAP proteins, which are directly associated with glutamatergic receptor functionality and neuroinflammation, respectively. This suggests that Cannabis extract could be applied in pathological conditions where glutamatergic excitotoxicity and astrogliosis are observed.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40920655/

https://app.jove.com/t/68104/oromucosal-as-an-alternative-method-for-administration-cannabis

Assessing the Role of Cannabis in Managing Spasticity in Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Posted on by
pubmed logo

“Background: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex, heterogeneous disease, and its management remains challenging due to varying symptoms and patient responses to treatments. While injectable therapies like glatiramer acetate and beta-interferon are common, they have limitations such as side effects and varying efficacy. Cannabis has garnered attention as a potential alternative treatment, particularly for symptoms like spasticity and pain.

Objective: This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of cannabis-based therapies for managing MS-related spasticity.

Methods: Nine clinical trials involving 2544 MS patients were included, with studies conducted between 2003 and 2021 across multiple countries. Cannabinoid therapies studied included whole-plant extracts, oils, and smoked cannabis containing delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and/or cannabidiol. Spasticity was assessed using standardized scales, including the Ashworth scale (AS), visual analog scale, and numeric rating scale (NRS). Effect sizes were pooled using random or fixed effects models, and heterogeneity and publication bias were evaluated using I², Tau², and funnel plots.

Results: The overall meta-analysis revealed a standardized mean difference (MD) of 39.19 (95% CI: 34.32-44.05) in spasticity scores, indicating notable improvement post-treatment. Subgroup analyses showed a MD of 20.36 (95% CI: 20.35-20.37) for AS and 1.18 (95% CI: 1.16-1.21) for NRS. However, substantial heterogeneity (I² = 100% for overall and AS analyses; 91% for NRS) and asymmetry in funnel plots suggest possible publication bias and study variability. Short-term studies demonstrated modest changes (MD = 4.53, 95% CI: -0.06 to 9.12), while long-term studies yielded larger effects (MD = 75.81, 95% CI: 66.39-85.22). Adverse events were generally mild, including dizziness and dry mouth.

Conclusion: Cannabis-based therapies are associated with clinically meaningful improvements in MS-related spasticity, particularly over longer durations. Despite the promising findings, high heterogeneity and suspected bias necessitate caution. Further high-quality randomized trials with standardized protocols and comprehensive safety assessments are warranted to validate efficacy and long-term outcomes.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40753057/

Cannabidiol as an immune modulator: A comprehensive review

Posted on by
pubmed logo

“Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive phytocannabinoid derived from Cannabis sativa, has emerged as a promising therapeutic agent due to its diverse pharmacological properties, including potent anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and immunomodulatory effects.

CBD modulates immune responses, including the regulation of T cell activity, induction of macrophage apoptosis, suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and modulation of signaling pathways involved in inflammation and immune homeostasis. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases to identify relevant preclinical and clinical studies on CBD’s immunomodulatory effects.

Preclinical and clinical studies demonstrate its efficacy in treating autoimmune diseases such as Type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease, along with its potential in neuropathic pain and cancer therapy.

Recent advancements in nanotechnology-based delivery systems have further enhanced CBD’s therapeutic potential by improving its solubility, bioavailability, and targeted delivery, enabling innovative approaches for wound healing, inflammation management, and cancer treatment. However, challenges such as variability in immune responses, limited long-term safety data, and potential drug-drug interactions persist.

This review comprehensively examines CBD’s pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and immunomodulatory mechanisms, highlighting its clinical potential, existing limitations, and future directions in advancing its integration into precision medicine and immune regulation.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40407987/

“Given the multifaceted pharmacological properties of CBD, it holds significant promise as a therapeutic agent.”

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44446-025-00005-7