Category Archives: Chronic Inflammatory and Neuropathic Pain

Combined non-psychoactive Cannabis components cannabidiol and β-caryophyllene reduce chronic pain via CB1 interaction in a rat spinal cord injury model

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Lopiccolo & Chang in PLoS ONE – BU Linguistics

“The most frequently reported use of medical marijuana is for pain relief. However, its psychoactive component Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) causes significant side effects. Cannabidiol (CBD) and β-caryophyllene (BCP), two other cannabis constituents, possess more benign side effect profiles and are also reported to reduce neuropathic and inflammatory pain. We evaluated the analgesic potential of CBD and BCP individually and in combination in a rat spinal cord injury (SCI) clip compression chronic pain model. Individually, both phytocannabinoids produced dose-dependent reduction in tactile and cold hypersensitivity in male and female rats with SCI. When co-administered at fixed ratios based on individual A50s, CBD and BCP produced enhanced dose-dependent reduction in allodynic responses with synergistic effects observed for cold hypersensitivity in both sexes and additive effects for tactile hypersensitivity in males. Antinociceptive effects of both individual and combined treatment were generally less robust in females than males. CBD:BCP co-administration also partially reduced morphine-seeking behavior in a conditioned place preference (CPP) test. Minimal cannabinoidergic side effects were observed with high doses of the combination. The antinociceptive effects of the CBD:BCP co-administration were not altered by either CB2 or μ-opioid receptor antagonist pretreatment but, were nearly completely blocked by CB1 antagonist AM251. Since neither CBD or BCP are thought to mediate antinociception via CB1 activity, these findings suggest a novel CB1 interactive mechanism between these two phytocannabinoids in the SCI pain state. Together, these findings suggest that CBD:BCP co-administration may provide a safe and effective treatment option for the management of chronic SCI pain.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36913400/

“In conclusion, the current findings indicate that the combination of readily accessible non-psychoactive cannabis components CBD oil and BCP may be particularly effective in reducing neuropathic pain resulting from spinal cord injury. In addition, cannabinoid-like side effects were minimal using this combination. Further, the observed decrease in opioid-seeking behavior suggest that this treatment may be useful as a supplemental therapeutic to reduce opioid needed for effective pain management. Together, these findings are supportive of the beneficial effects of combining cannabis components in the armamentarium for chronic pain management.”

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0282920

The antinociceptive activity and mechanism of action of cannabigerol

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Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy

“Cannabis has been used for centuries to treat pain.

The antinociceptive activity of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) or cannabidiol (CBD) has been widely studied. However, the antinociceptive effects of other cannabis components, such as cannabichromene (CBC) and cannabigerol (CBG), have rarely been revealed. The antinociceptive mechanism of CBG is not yet clear, so we investigated the antinociceptive effect of CBG on different pain models, and explored the mechanism of action of CBG to exert antinociceptive effects.

In the current study, we compared the antinociceptive effects of CBC, CBD, and CBG on the carrageenan-induced inflammatory pain model in mice, and the results showed that CBG had a better antinociceptive effects through intraplantar administration. On this basis, we further investigated the antinociceptive effect of CBG on CIA-induced arthritis pain model and nerve pain model in mice, and found that CBG also relieved on both types of pain. Then, we explored the antinociceptive mechanism of CBG, which revealed that CBG can activate TRPV1 and desensitize it to block the transmission of pain signals. In addition, CBG can further activate CB2R, but not CB1R, to stimulate the release of β-endorphin, which greatly promotes the antinociceptive effect.

Finally, the safety test results showed that CBG had no irritating effect on the rabbits’ skin, and it did not induce significant biochemical and hematological changes in mice. Transdermal delivery results also indicated that CBG has certain transdermal properties. Overall, this study indicates that CBG is promising for developing a transdermal dosage for pain management.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36916438/

“Cannabigerol can exert antinociceptive effects on multiple pain models.”

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0753332222015529?via%3Dihub

Medical Cannabis for Chronic Nonmalignant Pain Management

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SpringerLink

“Purpose of review: Cannabis has been used since ancient times for medical and recreational research. This review article will document the validity of how medical cannabis can be utilized for chronic nonmalignant pain management.

Recent findings: Current cannabis research has shown that medical cannabis is indicated for symptom management for many conditions not limited to cancer, chronic pain, headaches, migraines, and psychological disorders (anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder). Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are active ingredients in cannabis that modulate a patient’s symptoms. These compounds work to decrease nociception and symptom frequency via the endocannabinoid system. Research regarding pain management is limited within the USA as the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) classifies it as a schedule one drug. Few studies have found a limited relationship between chronic pain and medical cannabis use. A total of 77 articles were selected after a thorough screening process using PubMed and Google Scholar. This paper demonstrates that medical cannabis use provides adequate pain management. Patients suffering from chronic nonmalignant pain may benefit from medical cannabis due to its convenience and efficacy.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36897501/

“Patients often seek medical consultations most commonly because of having intolerable chronic pain. Medications such as NSAIDs or opioids are being used to relieve such pain. However, long-term use of these medications can also cause adverse effects on health. Several studies have been done regarding cannabis as an alternative for chronic pain. Some patients were reported to get relief from cannabis consumption through various routes, and the use of it has been legalized, too, in some states in the USA and countries like Germany. Italy, the Netherlands, UK, Australia, Uruguay, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Thailand, and Jamaica. Compared with opioids, studies show that cannabis use has lesser adverse effects, and it could even lessen opioid dependence.”

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11916-023-01101-w

Changes in Prescribed Opioid Dosages Among Patients Receiving Medical Cannabis for Chronic Pain, New York State, 2017-2019

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JAMA editors name the journal's best articles of the decade | American Medical Association

“Importance: Patients with chronic pain often receive long-term opioid therapy (LOT), which places them at risk of opioid use disorder and overdose. This presents the need for alternative or companion treatments; however, few studies on the association of medical cannabis (MC) with reducing opioid dosages exist.

Objective: To assess changes in opioid dosages among patients receiving MC for longer duration compared with shorter duration.

Design, setting, and participants: This cohort study of New York State Prescription Monitoring Program data from 2017 to 2019 included patients receiving MC for chronic pain while also receiving opioid treatment. Of these, patients receiving LOT prior to receiving MC were selected. Individuals were studied for 8 months after starting MC. Data were analyzed from November 2021 to February 2022.

Exposures: Selected patients were divided into 2 groups based on the duration of receiving MC: the nonexposure group received MC for 30 days or fewer, and the exposure group received MC for more than 30 days.

Main outcomes and measures: The main outcome was opioid dosage, measured by mean daily morphine milligram equivalent (MME). Analyses were conducted for 3 strata by opioid dosage prior to receiving MC: MME less than 50, MME of 50 to less than 90, and MME of 90 or greater.

Results: A total of 8165 patients were included, with 4041 (median [IQR] age, 57 [47-65] years; 2376 [58.8%] female) in the exposure group and 4124 (median [IQR] age, 54 (44-62) years; 2370 [57.5%] female) in the nonexposure group. Median (IQR) baseline MMEs for the exposure vs nonexposure groups were 30.0 (20.0-40.0) vs 30.0 (20.0-40.0) in the lowest stratum, 60.0 (60.0-70.0) vs 60.0 (60.0-90.0) in the middle stratum, and 150.0 (100.0-216.2) vs 135.0 (100.0-218.0) in the highest stratum. During follow-up, significantly greater reductions in opioid dosage were observed among the exposure group. A dose-response association of patients’ opioid dosage at baseline was observed with the differences in the monthly MME reductions between exposure and nonexposure groups, with a difference of -1.52 (95% CI, -1.67 to -1.37) MME for the lowest stratum, -3.24 (95% CI, -3.61 to -2.87) MME for the middle stratum, and -9.33 (95% CI, -9.89 to -8.77) MME for the highest stratum. The daily MME for the last month of the follow-up period among patients receiving longer MC was reduced by 48% in the lowest stratum, 47% in the middle stratum, and 51% in the highest stratum compared with the baseline dosages. Among individuals in the nonexposure group, daily MME was reduced by only 4% in the lowest stratum, 9% in the middle stratum, and 14% in the highest stratum.

Conclusions and relevance: In this cohort study of patients receiving LOT, receiving MC for a longer duration was associated with reductions in opioid dosages, which may lower their risk of opioid-related morbidity and mortality.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36716026/

“This cohort study found that receiving MC for longer was associated with opioid dosage reductions. The reductions were larger among individuals who were prescribed higher dosages of opioids at baseline. These findings contribute robust evidence for clinicians regarding the potential benefits of MC in reducing the opioid burden for patients receiving LOT and possibly reduce their risk for overdose.”

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2800813

“State DOH: Medical cannabis may reduce opioid burden in managing chronic pain”

https://www.troyrecord.com/2023/02/02/state-doh-releases-study-on-role-of-medical-cannabis-for-chronic-pain-reduction/

Inhaled Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol does not enhance oxycodone-induced respiratory depression: randomised controlled trial in healthy volunteers

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British Journal of Anaesthesia | The Royal College of Anaesthetists

“Background: In humans, the effect of cannabis on ventilatory control is poorly studied, and consequently, the effect of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) remains unknown, particularly when THC is combined with an opioid. We studied the effect of THC on breathing without and with oxycodone pretreatment. We hypothesised that THC causes respiratory depression, which is amplified when THC and oxycodone are combined.

Methods: In this randomised controlled crossover trial, healthy volunteers were administered inhaled Bedrocan® 100 mg (Bedrocan International B.V., Veendam, The Netherlands), a pharmaceutical-grade high-THC cannabis variant (21.8% THC; 0.1% cannabidiol), after placebo or oral oxycodone 20 mg pretreatment; THC was inhaled 1.5 and 4.5 h after placebo or oxycodone intake. The primary endpoint was isohypercapnic ventilation at an end-tidal Pco2 of 55 mm Hg or 7.3 kPa (VE55), measured at 1-h intervals for 7 h after placebo/oxycodone intake.

Results: In 18 volunteers (age 22 yr [3]; 9 [50%] female), oxycodone produced a 30% decrease in VE55, whereas placebo was without effect on VE55. The first cannabis inhalation resulted in VE55 changing from 20.3 (3.1) to 23.8 (2.4) L min-1 (P=0.06) after placebo, and from 11.8 (2.8) to 13.0 (3.9) L min-1 (P=0.83) after oxycodone. The second cannabis inhalation also had no effect on VE55, but slightly increased sedation.

Conclusions: In humans, THC has no effect on ventilatory control after placebo or oxycodone pretreatment.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36725378/

“In pain management, the use of THC or its combination with an opioid can be advantageous, as the combination has an opioid-sparing effect.

However, this is only of advantage provided the combination of these two drug classes does not exacerbate opioid-induced respiratory depression.

In this study, we examined the effect of inhaled medicinal-grade cannabis, containing a high THC dose, on ventilatory control in healthy human volunteers with placebo or oxycodone pretreatment. 

THC has no effect on ventilatory control after placebo or oxycodone pretreatment.

In summary, in human volunteers, THC has no significant effect on ventilatory control after placebo or oxycodone pretreatment.”

https://www.bjanaesthesia.org/article/S0007-0912(22)00743-7/fulltext

Evaluating the impact of cannabinoids on sleep health and pain in patients with chronic neuropathic pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

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pubmed logo

“Background: Chronic neuropathic pain is often debilitating and can have a significant impact on sleep health and quality of life. There is limited information on the impact of cannabinoids on sleep health when treating neuropathic pain.

Objective: The objectives of this systematic review and meta-analysis were to determine the effect of cannabinoids on sleep quality, pain intensity, and patient impression of treatment efficacy in patients with neuropathic pain.

Evidence review: Nine available medical literature databases were searched for randomized controlled trials comparing synthetic and natural cannabinoids to placebo in patients with neuropathic pain syndromes. Data on validated tools for sleep quality, pain intensity, patients’ global impression of change (PGIC), and incidence of adverse effects of cannabinoids were extracted and synthesized.

Findings: Of the 3491 studies screened, eight randomized controlled trials satisfied the inclusion criteria for this review. Analyses were performed using R -4.1.2. using the metafor package and are interpreted using alpha=0.05 as the threshold for statistical significance. Validated measures for sleep health were not used in most studies. Meta-analysis of data from six studies showed that cannabinoids were associated with a significant improvement in sleep quality (standardized mean difference (SMD): 0.40; 95% CI: 0.19 to -0.61, 95% prediction interval (PI): -0.12 to 0.88, p-value=0.002, I2=55.26, τ2=0.05, Q-statistic=16.72, GRADE: moderate certainty). Meta-analysis of data from eight studies showed a significant reduction in daily pain scores in the cannabinoid (CB) group (SMD: -0.55, 95% CI:-0.69 to -0.19, 95% PI: -1.51 to 0.39, p=0.003, I2=82.49, τ2=0.20, Q-statistic=47.69, GRADE: moderate certainty). However, sleep health and analgesic benefits were associated with a higher likelihood of experiencing daytime somnolence, nausea, and dizziness.

Conclusions: Cannabinoids have a role in treating chronic neuropathic pain as evidenced by significant improvements in sleep quality, pain intensity, and PGIC. More research is needed to comprehensively evaluate the impact of cannabinoids on sleep health and analgesic efficacy.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36598058/

https://rapm.bmj.com/content/early/2022/12/04/rapm-2021-103431

Cannabidiol-rich non-psychotropic Cannabis sativa L. oils attenuate peripheral neuropathy symptoms by regulation of CB2-mediated microglial neuroinflammation

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“Neuropathic pain (NP) is a chronic disease that affects the normal quality of life of patients. To date, the therapies available are only symptomatic and they are unable to reduce the progression of the disease. Many studies reported the efficacy of Cannabis sativa L. (C. sativa) on NP, but no Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9 -THC)-free extracts have been investigated in detail for this activity so far. The principal aim of this work is to investigate the potential pain-relieving effect of innovative cannabidiol-rich non-psychotropic C. sativa oils, with a high content of terpenes (K2), compared to the same extract devoid of terpenes (K1). Oral administration of K2 (25 mg kg-1 ) induced a rapid and long-lasting relief of pain hypersensitivity in a mice model of peripheral neuropathy. In spinal cord samples, K2 reduced mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPKs) levels and neuroinflammatory factors. These effects were reverted by the administration of a CB2 antagonist (AM630), but not by a CB1 antagonist (AM251). Conversely, K1 showed a lower efficacy in the absence of CB1/CB2-mediated mechanisms. In LPS-stimulated murine microglial cells (BV2), K2 reduced microglia pro-inflammatory phenotype through the downregulation of histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC-1) and nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor (IKBα) and increased interleukin-10 (IL-10) expression, an important antiinflammatory cytokine. In conclusion, these results suggested that K2 oral administration attenuated NP symptoms by reducing spinal neuroinflammation and underline the important role of the synergism between cannabinoids and terpenes.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36583304/

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ptr.7710

Drug-Drug Interaction Between Orally Administered Hydrocodone-Acetaminophen and Inhalation of Cannabis Smoke: A Case Report

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SAGE Journals Home

“Objective: To determine if a 2-day protocol measuring pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics can demonstrate drug-drug interactions when smoked cannabis is added to orally administered hydrocodone/acetaminophen combination products.

Case summary: A 51-year-old non-Hispanic white male with chronic pain diagnoses participated in a 2-day pilot protocol. The participant attended two 7-hour in-lab days where he received 10 blood draws each day and completed self-administered pain and anxiety surveys. For both days, the participant took his prescribed dose of hydrocodone/acetaminophen (1/2 tablet of 7.5 mg/325 mg combination product) with the addition of 1 smoked pre-rolled marijuana cigarette (labeled as 0.5 g; 22.17% Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol; 0.12% cannabidiol) on Day 2. Blood specimens were analyzed using mass spectrometry to quantify the difference of plasma hydrocodone levels between Day 1 and Day 2.

Results: Compared to Day 1, lower levels of pain and anxiety were reported during Day 2 with the addition of cannabis to oral hydrocodone/acetaminophen. Day 2 pharmacokinetic analysis also revealed more rapid absorption and overall lower levels of hydrocodone in plasma.

Discussion: Lower hydrocodone plasma levels in Day 2 may indicate cannabis’s effect on metabolism and reduce the risk of opioid toxicity. The quicker absorption rate of hydrocodone could explain lower pain and anxiety scores reported on the second day.

Conclusion and relevance: A 2-day protocol was able to capture differences across time in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic measurements. Larger studies can be designed to better characterize the potential drug-drug interaction of cannabis and opioids.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35898257/

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00185787211061374

Phytocannabinoids Act Synergistically with Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs Reducing Inflammation in 2D and 3D In Vitro Models

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pharmaceuticals-logo

“Lung inflammation is associated with elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Treatment with FCBD:std (standard mix of cannabidiol [CBD], cannabigerol [CBG] and tetrahydrocannabivarin [THCV]) leads to a marked reduction in the inflammation of alveolar epithelial cells, but not in macrophages.

In the present study, the combined anti-inflammatory effect of FCBD:std with two corticosteroids (dexamethasone and budesonide) and two non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID; ibuprofen and diclofenac), was examined. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine protein levels. Gene expression was determined by quantitative real-time PCR. Inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase (COX) activity was determined in vitro.

FCBD:std and diclofenac act synergistically, reducing IL-8 levels in macrophages and lung epithelial cells. FCBD:std plus diclofenac also reduced IL-6, IL-8 and CCL2 expression levels in co-cultures of macrophages and lung epithelial cells, in 2D and 3D models. Treatment by FCBD:std and/or NSAID reduced COX-1 and COX-2 gene expression but not their enzymatic activity. FCBD:std and diclofenac exhibit synergistic anti-inflammatory effects on macrophages and lung epithelial cells, yet this combined activity needs to be examined in pre-clinical studies and clinical trials.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36559009/

“We have shown that FCBD:std and diclofenac have synergistic anti-inflammatory effects on macrophages and lung epithelial cells, which involve the reduction of COX and CCL2 gene expression and IL levels. FCBD:std, when combined with diclofenac, can have considerably increased anti-inflammatory activity by several fold, suggesting that in an effective cannabis-diclofenac combined treatment, the level of NSAIDs may be reduced without compromising anti-inflammatory effectivity.”

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/15/12/1559

Safety and Effectiveness of Cannabinoids to Danish Patients with Treatment Refractory Chronic Pain – A Retrospective Observational Real-world Study

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“Background: Cannabinoids are considered a therapeutic option to patients suffering from treatment refractory chronic pain (TRCP) insufficiently relieved by conventional analgesics or experiencing intolerable adverse events (AEs) from those. This study aimed to explore safety and effectiveness of oral cannabinoids among patients with TRCP.

Methods: A retrospective study was conducted among Danish patients with TRCP being prescribed oral cannabinoids. Data on AEs and changes in pain intensity by numeric rating scale (NRS) before and after initiation of oral cannabinoid therapy were analyzed.

Results: Among 826 eligible patients ≥ 18 years old, 529 (64%) were included for data analysis at first follow- up (F/U1) (median 56 days from baseline) and 214 (26%) for second follow-up (F/U2) (median 126 days from F/U1). Mean age was 60±15.9 years and 70% were females. AEs were in general reported mild to moderate by 42% of patients at F/U1 and 34% at F/U2. AEs were mainly related to gastrointestinal (F/U1: 17% and F/U2: 13%) and nervous system disorders (F/U1: 14% and F/U2: 11%). Reduction in NRS was significantly different at both follow-up consultations compared with baseline (<.0001). Clinically relevant pain reduction (NRS ≥30%) was reported by 17% at F/U1 and 10% of patients at F/U2 in intention-to-treat analysis whereas the figures were 32% and 45% respectively, in per-protocol analysis.

Conclusion: Oral cannabinoid therapy seems to be safe and mildly effective in patients with TRCP. Randomized controlled trials with focus on comparable pain characteristics in diagnostical homogenous patient subgroups are needed for further improvement of evidence level for relief of chronic pain using oral cannabinoids.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36394124/

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejp.2054