Cannabigerolic Acid (CBGA) Inhibits the TRPM7 Ion Channel Through its Kinase Domain

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“Cannabinoids are a major class of compounds produced by the plant Cannabis sativa. Previous work has demonstrated that the main cannabinoids cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) can have some beneficial effects on pain, inflammation, epilepsy, and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. While CBD and THC represent the two major plant cannabinoids, some hemp varieties with enzymatic deficiencies produce mainly cannabigerolic acid (CBGA). We recently reported that CBGA has a potent inhibitory effect on both Store-Operated Calcium Entry (SOCE) via inhibition of Calcium Release-Activated Calcium (CRAC) channels as well as currents carried by the channel-kinase TRPM7. Importantly, CBGA prevented kidney damage and suppressed mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines through inhibition of these mechanisms in an acute nephropathic mouse model. In the present study, we investigate the most common major and minor cannabinoids to determine their potential efficacy on TRPM7 channel function. We find that approximately half of the tested cannabinoids suppress TRPM7 currents to some degree, with CBGA having the strongest inhibitory effect on TRPM7. We determined that the CBGA-mediated inhibition of TRPM7 requires a functional kinase domain, is sensitized by both intracellular Mg⋅ATP and free Mg2+ and reduced by increases in intracellular Ca2+. Finally, we demonstrate that CBGA inhibits native TRPM7 channels in a B lymphocyte cell line. In conclusion, we demonstrate that CBGA is the most potent cannabinoid in suppressing TRPM7 activity and possesses therapeutic potential for diseases in which TRPM7 is known to play an important role such as cancer, stroke, and kidney disease.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38162115/

https://academic.oup.com/function/article/5/1/zqad069/7462310?login=false

Neuroprotection and Beyond: The Central Role of CB1 and CB2 Receptors in Stroke Recovery

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“The endocannabinoid system, with its intricate presence in numerous cells, tissues, and organs, offers a compelling avenue for therapeutic interventions. Central to this system are the cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB1R and CB2R), whose ubiquity can introduce complexities in targeted treatments due to their wide-ranging physiological influence. Injuries to the central nervous system (CNS), including strokes and traumatic brain injuries, induce localized pro-inflammatory immune responses, termed neuroinflammation. Research has shown that compensatory immunodepression usually follows, and these mechanisms might influence immunity, potentially affecting infection risks in patients. As traditional preventive treatments like antibiotics face challenges, the exploration of immunomodulatory therapies offers a promising alternative. This review delves into the potential neuroprotective roles of the cannabinoid receptors: CB1R’s involvement in mitigating excitotoxicity and CB2R’s dual role in promoting cell survival and anti-inflammatory responses. However, the potential of cannabinoids to reduce neuroinflammation must be weighed against the risk of exacerbating immunodepression. Though the endocannabinoid system promises numerous therapeutic benefits, understanding its multifaceted signaling mechanisms and outcomes remains a challenge.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38069049/

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/23/16728

Anti-oxidant effects of cannabidiol relevant to intracerebral hemorrhage

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“Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a subtype of stroke with a high mortality rate. Oxidative stress cascades play an important role in brain injury after ICH.

Cannabidiol, a major non-psychotropic phytocannabinoids, has drawn increasing interest in recent years as a potential therapeutic intervention for various neuropsychiatric disorders.

Here we provide a comprehensive review of the potential therapeutic effects of cannabidiol in countering oxidative stress resulting from ICH. The review elaborates on the various sources of oxidative stress post-ICH, including mitochondrial dysfunction, excitotoxicity, iron toxicity, inflammation, and also highlights cannabidiol’s ability to inhibit ROS/RNS generation from these sources. The article also delves into cannabidiol’s role in promoting ROS/RNS scavenging through the Nrf2/ARE pathway, detailing both extranuclear and intranuclear regulatory mechanisms.

Overall, the review underscores cannabidiol’s promising antioxidant effects in the context of ICH and suggests its potential as a therapeutic option.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37841923/

“These results suggest that CBD may be an effective treatment against ICH-induced OS.”

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2023.1247550/full

Role of Terpenophenolics in Modulating Inflammation and Apoptosis in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Review

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“One in every three deaths worldwide is caused by cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), estimating a total of 17.9 million deaths annually. By 2030, it is expected that more than 24 million people will die from CVDs related complications. The most common CVDs are coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, and hypertension.

A plethora of studies has shown inflammation causing both short-term and long-term damage to the tissues in many organ systems, including the cardiovascular system. In parallel to inflammation processes, it has been discovered that apoptosis, a mode of programmed cell death, may also contribute to CVD development due to the loss of cardiomyocytes.

Terpenophenolic compounds are comprised of terpenes and natural phenols as secondary metabolites by plants and are commonly found in the genus Humulus and Cannabis. A growing body of evidence has shown that terpenophenolic compounds exhibit protective properties against inflammation and apoptosis within the cardiovascular system.

This review highlights the current evidence elucidating the molecular actions of terpenophenolic compounds in protecting the cardiovascular system, i.e., bakuchiol, ferruginol, carnosic acid, carnosol, carvacrol, thymol and hinokitiol. The potential of these compounds is discussed as the new nutraceutical drugs that may help to decrease the burden of cardiovascular disorders.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36982410/

“In this review, we have summarised the evidence on the potential pharmacological activities of terpenophenolic compounds in regulating inflammation and apoptosis associated with CVDs. Treatment of various classes of terpenophenolic compounds has been shown effective in preventing and limiting the progression of heart failure. In addition, all terpenophenolics seem to be potent antioxidants, which are proven to upregulate the Nrf2 pathway and increase the endogenous antioxidant level.”

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/6/5339

Nabiximols effect on blood pressure and heart rate in post-stroke patients of a randomized controlled study

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“Background: Cannabinoids may be useful to treat pain, epilepsy and spasticity, although they may bear an increased risk of cardiovascular events. This study aims to evaluate the cardiovascular safety of nabiximols, a cannabis-based drug, in patients with spasticity following stroke, thus presenting an increased cardiovascular risk.

Methods: This is an ancillary study stemming from the SativexStroke trial: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study aimed at assessing the effect of nabiximols on post-stroke spasticity. Patients were treated with nabiximols oromucosal spray or placebo and assessed before and after two phases of 1-month duration each. Only the phase with the active treatment was considered for each patient who completed the study. The average values of blood pressure (diastolic, systolic, differential) and heart rate from the first 5 days of the phase (lowest nabiximols dosage) were compared to the average values recorded during the last 5 days at the end of the phase (highest nabiximols dosage). Baseline comparisons between gender, stroke type and affected side and correlation between age and blood pressure and heart rate were performed. The study was registered with the EudraCT number 2016-001034-10.

Results: Thirty-four patients completed the study and were included in the analysis. Thirty-one were taking antihypertensive drugs and, among these, 12 were taking beta-blockers. During the study, no arrhythmic events were recorded, blood pressure and heart rate did not show pathological fluctuations, and no cardiovascular or cerebrovascular events occurred. At baseline blood pressure and heart rate were comparable concerning gender, stroke type and affected side. A significant direct correlation emerged between differential blood pressure and age and an inverse correlation between diastolic blood pressure and age. No correlation emerged between systolic blood pressure or heart rate and age. Blood pressure and heart rate did not change during nabiximols treatment compared to the baseline condition.

Conclusion: This ancillary study adds evidence that, in patients who already underwent a cerebrovascular accident, nabiximols does not determine significant blood pressure and heart rate variation or cardiovascular complications. These data support the cardiovascular safety of nabiximols, encouraging more extensive studies involving cannabinoids characterized by slow absorption rates.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36386386/

“In conclusion, an interesting result of this pilot study is the good cardiovascular safety profile of nabiximols in patients with stroke. In these patients, the possible beneficial effect of cannabinoids, such as delaying atherosclerotic progression and inflammation, may deserve further investigation. Furthermore, because of the rapidly changing landscape of cannabis laws and marijuana use in western countries, there is a pressing need for refined policy, education of both clinicians and the public, and new research. Carefully designed, prospective, short- and long-term studies are needed to obtain conclusive data on the safety and efficacy of cannabinoid drugs.”

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcvm.2022.990188/full

Cannabidiol Exerts a Neuroprotective and Glia-Balancing Effect in the Subacute Phase of Stroke

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“Pharmacological agents limiting secondary tissue loss and improving functional outcomes after stroke are still limited. Cannabidiol (CBD), the major non-psychoactive component of Cannabis sativa, has been proposed as a neuroprotective agent against experimental cerebral ischemia. The effects of CBD mostly relate to the modulation of neuroinflammation, including glial activation. To investigate the effects of CBD on glial cells after focal ischemia in vivo, we performed time-lapse imaging of microglia and astroglial Ca2+ signaling in the somatosensory cortex in the subacute phase of stroke by in vivo two-photon laser-scanning microscopy using transgenic mice with microglial EGFP expression and astrocyte-specific expression of the genetically encoded Ca2+ sensor GCaMP3. CBD (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) prevented ischemia-induced neurological impairment, reducing the neurological deficit score from 2.0 ± 1.2 to 0.8 ± 0.8, and protected against neurodegeneration, as shown by the reduction (more than 70%) in Fluoro-Jade C staining (18.8 ± 7.5 to 5.3 ± 0.3). CBD reduced ischemia-induced microglial activation assessed by changes in soma area and total branch length, and exerted a balancing effect on astroglial Ca2+ signals. Our findings indicate that the neuroprotective effects of CBD may occur in the subacute phase of ischemia, and reinforce its strong anti-inflammatory property. Nevertheless, its mechanism of action on glial cells still requires further studies.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36361675/

“Overall, the present findings suggest that the functional and structural protective effects of cannabidiol (CBD) are closely associated with anti-inflammatory activity in the subacute phase of ischemia. Even though the mechanisms of action of CBD are not yet fully understood, our data have heuristic value to inspire further studies investigating the effect of CBD using different treatment schedules, for example, when administered for longer periods or later after the onset of ischemia. In conclusion, our data highlight the potential of CBD as a neuroprotective compound in stroke.”

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/21/12886/htm

Cannabidiol’s Multifactorial Mechanisms Has Therapeutic Potential for Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: a Review

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“Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a major health burden that accounts for approximately 5% of all strokes. The most common cause of a non-traumatic SAH is the rupture of a cerebral aneurysm. The most common symptom associated with SAH is a headache, often described as “the worst headache of my life.” Delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) is a major factor associated with patient mortality following SAH and is often associated with SAH-induced cerebral vasospasm (CV).

Cannabidiol (CBD) is emerging as a potential drug for many therapeutic purposes, including epilepsy, anxiety, and pain relief. We aim to review the potential use of CBD as a treatment option for post-SAH critically ill patients. Through a literature review, we evaluated the known pharmacology and physiological effects of CBD and correlated those with the pathophysiological outcomes associated with cerebral vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage. Although overlap exists, data were formatted into three major categories: anti-inflammatory, vascular, and neuroprotective effects.

Based on the amount of information known about the actions of CBD, we hypothesize the anti-inflammatory effects are likely to be the most promising therapeutic mechanism. However, its cardiovascular effects through calcium regulation and its neuroprotective effects against cell death, excitotoxicity, and oxidative stress are all plausible mechanisms by which post-SAH critically ill patients may benefit from both early and late intervention with CBD. More research is needed to better understand if and how CBD might affect neurological and vascular functions in the brain following injury such as subarachnoid hemorrhage.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36109476/

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12975-022-01080-x

Neuroprotection of Cannabidiol, Its Synthetic Derivatives and Combination Preparations against Microglia-Mediated Neuroinflammation in Neurological Disorders

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“The lack of effective treatment for neurological disorders has encouraged the search for novel therapeutic strategies. Remarkably, neuroinflammation provoked by the activated microglia is emerging as an important therapeutic target for neurological dysfunction in the central nervous system. In the pathological context, the hyperactivation of microglia leads to neuroinflammation through the release of neurotoxic molecules, such as reactive oxygen species, proteinases, proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines.

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a major pharmacologically active phytocannabinoids derived from Cannabis sativa L. CBD has promising therapeutic effects based on mounting clinical and preclinical studies of neurological disorders, such as epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, ischemic brain injuries, neuropathic pain, schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease.

A number of preclinical studies suggested that CBD exhibited potent inhibitory effects of neurotoxic molecules and inflammatory modulators, highlighting its remarkable therapeutic potential for the treatment of numerous neurological disorders. However, the molecular mechanisms of action underpinning CBD’s effects on neuroinflammation appear to be complex and are poorly understood.

This review summarises the anti-neuroinflammatory activities of CBD against various neurological disorders with a particular focus on their main molecular mechanisms of action, which were related to the downregulation of NADPH oxidase-mediated ROS, TLR4-NFκB and IFN-β-JAK-STAT pathways. We also illustrate the pharmacological action of CBD’s derivatives focusing on their anti-neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective effects for neurological disorders. We included the studies that demonstrated synergistic enhanced anti-neuroinflammatory activity using CBD and other biomolecules.

The studies that are summarised in the review shed light on the development of CBD, including its derivatives and combination preparations as novel therapeutic options for the prevention and/or treatment of neurological disorders where neuroinflammation plays an important role in the pathological components.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35956911/

“Cannabinoids are a group of terpenophenolic compounds derived from the Cannabis sativa L. plant. The preclinical studies summarised in this review supported the therapeutic use of CBD in treating neurological disorders from its action in addressing microglia-mediated neuroinflammation. The findings of this review shed light on the development of CBD and relevant compounds as novel and more advantageous therapeutics to prevent or treat neurological disorders by targeting microglia-mediated neuroinflammation.”

https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/27/15/4961/htm


Cannabinoids as Glial Cell Modulators in Ischemic Stroke: Implications for Neuroprotection

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“Stroke is the second leading cause of death worldwide following coronary heart disease. Despite significant efforts to find effective treatments to reduce neurological damage, many patients suffer from sequelae that impair their quality of life. For this reason, the search for new therapeutic options for the treatment of these patients is a priority.

Glial cells, including microglia, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, participate in crucial processes that allow the correct functioning of the neural tissue, being actively involved in the pathophysiological mechanisms of ischemic stroke. Although the exact mechanisms by which glial cells contribute in the pathophysiological context of stroke are not yet completely understood, they have emerged as potentially therapeutic targets to improve brain recovery.

The endocannabinoid system has interesting immunomodulatory and protective effects in glial cells, and the pharmacological modulation of this signaling pathway has revealed potential neuroprotective effects in different neurological diseases. Therefore, here we recapitulate current findings on the potential promising contribution of the endocannabinoid system pharmacological manipulation in glial cells for the treatment of ischemic stroke.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35721207/

“In summary, due to the profound implication of glial cells in stroke, the pharmacological modulation of the glial endocannabinoid system (ECS) could represent a significant advantage to help reduce/limit neuronal damage and stroke-associated sequelae.”

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2022.888222/full

Antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects of cannabidiol in model of ischemic stroke in rats

“One of the main non-psychoactive phytocannabinoids of cannabis is cannabidiol (CBD), which has attracted much attention for its neuroprotective roles. The present study was designed to assess whether pretreatment of CBD can attenuate two of the destructive processes of cerebral ischemia, including oxidative stress and cell death. The male rats were randomly divided into 6 main groups (control, MCAO, vehicle, and CBD-treated groups). Using stereotaxic surgery, a cannula was inserted into the right lateral ventricle of the rat brain. CBD was injected at doses of 50, 100 and 200 ng/rat for five consecutive days. After pretreatment, middle cerebral artery (MCA) was blocked for 60 min using the intraluminal filament technique. 24 h after reperfusion, each main group was considered for measurement of infarct volume, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), p53 gene expression, pathological alterations, and expression of Bax, Bcl-2, cytochrome C, and caspase-3 proteins. The results revealed that CBD at dose of 100 ng/rat reduced the infarction volume and MDA level in cortical and striatal areas of rat brain compared with vehicle group. In addition, the CBD at dose of 100 ng/rat elevated the activity of SOD enzyme in cortex and striatum. The increase in the activity of CAT was also seen at dose of 100 ng/rat in cortex. Furthermore, the Bcl-2/Bax ratio was significantly diminished by the dose of 100 ng/rat CBD in cortex. Moreover, a decrease in expression of cytosolic cytochrome C was observed by CBD at doses of 100 and 200 ng/rat in cortex. CBD at doses 100 and 200 ng/rat also reduced the expression of caspase-3 in cortical and striatal areas, respectively. P53 was downregulated following administration of CBD at dose of 100 ng/rat. Moreover, histological analysis showed the decrease in the percentage of pyknotic neurons in 100 and 200 ng/rat CBD-received groups. CBD played the anti-apoptosis and anti-oxidant roles in cerebral ischemia by affecting the pathways of intrinsic apoptosis, endogenous antioxidant enzymes, and lipid peroxidation.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35031355/