Category Archives: Liver Cancer

Neutrophil extracellular traps and cannabinoids: potential in cancer metastasis

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“Cancer is the second leading cause of global mortality after cardiovascular diseases, with breast, lung, colon, and prostate cancers being the most common. WHO projects around 30 million new cancer cases worldwide by 2045, with breast cancer being the most common in women and lung cancer in men.

Metastasis is responsible for nearly 90% of cancer-related deaths. Breast and lung cancers tend to metastasize to the bones, lymph nodes, lungs, liver, and brain. Lungs remains one of the most common organs to which various forms of cancer metastasize.

An important factor in metastasis is NETosis – it can initially help to eliminate cancer cells, but it can also promote metastasis. Phytocannabinoids, compounds derived from Cannabis sativa, and the endocannabinoid system (ECS) offer promising therapeutic potential to inhibit NETosis and consequently cancer development and metastasis.

Although the precise effects of phytocannabinoids on neutrophil functions and NETosis are not fully understood and require further research in the context of cancer, preliminary studies suggest their potential to inhibit NET release in various disease models.

This review consolidates current knowledge and provides new insights into how phytocannabinoids and the ECS may serve as effective therapeutic tools to limit cancer metastasis.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40599866/

“Research indicates that metastatic progression is responsible for most deaths caused by breast cancer, with metastatic processes accounting for nearly 90% of cancer-related mortality.”

“Phytocannabinoids, together with the endocannabinoid system (ECS), represent a highly promising therapeutic avenue for attenuating neutrophil effector functions, particularly the process of NETosis.

We believe that these compounds have significant potential as agents capable of effectively inhibiting metastatic progression.

Phytocannabinoids, derived primarily from the Cannabis sativa plant, are a group of organic compounds that interact with the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in the human body.”

“Both phytocannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system (ECS) show significant therapeutic potential in cancer treatment. Research indicates that these agents affect the proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasiveness of cancer cells. In addition, they modulate the tumor microenvironment, particularly the cells of the immune system.”

https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/oncology/articles/10.3389/fonc.2025.1595913/full

Cannabidiol (CBD) as a potential therapeutic agent for liver cancer: a comprehensive review of current evidence

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“Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major cause of cancer-related mortality with limited treatment options. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive compound from Cannabis sativa, has shown anticancer properties.

This review analyzes CBD’s therapeutic potential in HCC, focusing on mechanisms, preclinical/clinical findings, and integration into treatment strategies. A systematic search (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar) up to March 2025 identified 16 relevant studies (in vitro, in vivo, clinical).

CBD exerts antitumor effects via multiple pathways, including apoptosis, autophagy regulation, metastasis suppression, and tumor microenvironment modulation. CBD interacts with the endocannabinoid system (ECS), inhibits oncogenic signaling (PI3K/AKT/mTOR), and enhances chemotherapeutic efficacy (sorafenib, cabozantinib).

Studies show CBD induces pyroptosis via caspase-3/GSDME, and modulates autophagy by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. It also sensitizes HCC cells to sorafenib and cabozantinib. Preclinical results are promising, but clinical studies are limited. Challenges like bioavailability and potential hepatotoxicity require investigation. Future research should optimize formulations, determine dosing, and conduct clinical trials to validate CBD’s efficacy/safety in HCC patients.

Validated CBD could offer an innovative HCC management option.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40533744/

“Overall, while preclinical findings strongly support the therapeutic potential of CBD in HCC, robust clinical trials are urgently needed to confirm its efficacy, safety, optimal dosing strategies, and long-term effects. If validated, CBD could represent an innovative and complementary approach in the management of hepatocellular carcinoma.”

https://cancerci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12935-025-03870-3

Cannabidiol mitigates methotrexate-induced hepatic injury via SIRT-1/p53 signaling and mitochondrial pathways: reduces oxidative stress and inflammation

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“Methotrexate (MTX), a widely used chemotherapeutic agent, often induces hepatotoxicity, limiting its clinical utility.

Cannabidiol (CBD), derived from hemp, possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic properties.

This study aims to investigate CBD’s protective effects against MTX-induced liver injury and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Thirty-two female Wistar Albino rats were divided into four groups: control, MTX (20 mg/kg intraperitoneally [i.p.] once), MTX+CBD (20 mg/kg i.p. once + 5 mg/kg i.p. for seven days), and CBD (5 mg/kg, i.p. for seven days). Biochemical analyses of serum and liver tissues were performed to assess oxidative stress markers (total oxidant status, total antioxidant status, oxidative stress index), liver function tests (AST, ALT), and antioxidant enzyme activities (glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase). Histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations were conducted to evaluate liver tissue damage and TNF-α expression. Genetic analyses were performed to measure the expression levels of SIRT-1, p53, Bcl-2, and Bax genes using RT-qPCR. MTX administration increased oxidative stress markers, liver enzymes, TNF-α, p53, and Bax levels while decreasing antioxidant defenses and SIRT-1 expression.

CBD administration reversed these alterations effectively.

CBD mitigated MTX-induced hepatotoxicity by reducing oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. It activates antioxidant defenses via SIRT-1 upregulation, suppresses inflammation by reducing TNF-α, and prevents apoptosis by modulating p53, Bcl-2, and Bax gene expressions.

These findings suggest CBD could be a promising therapeutic agent for chemotherapy-induced liver damage. Further research is warranted to explore additional pathways and broader molecular mechanisms.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39603835/

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01480545.2024.2425994


Synthesis and antiproliferative activity of CBD aromatic ester derivatives

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“This study involved the synthesis of a series of novel cannabidiol (CBD) aromatic ester derivatives, including CBD-8,12-diaromaticester derivatives (compounds 2a-2t) and CBD-8,12-diacetyl-21-aromaticester derivatives (compound 5a-5c).

The antiproliferative activities of these compounds against human liver cancer cell lines HePG2 and HeP3B as well as human pancreatic cancer cell lines ASPC-1 and BXPC-3 were evaluated in vitro using the CCK-8 assay.

The results indicated that compound 2f exhibited an IC50 value of 2.75 µM against HePG2, which is 5.32-fold higher than that of CBD. Additionally, compounds 2b and 5b demonstrated varying degrees of improved anticancer activity (IC50 5.95-9.21 µM) against HePG2.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39004890/

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786419.2024.2369914

Cannabidiol reverts the malignant phenotype of hepatocellular carcinoma cells via the GPR55/TP53/MAPK axis

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“Cannabidiol (CBD) has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the anti-tumor effect of CBD on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unclear. Here, we investigated whether CBD displays anti-tumorigenic effects in HCC cells and whether it could reduce tumorigenesis and metastases in vivo.

First, this study treated HCC cells with different concentrations of CBD, followed by analyzing the changes in the proliferative, apoptotic, migratory and invasive abilities. The effects of CBD on the growth and metastasis of HCC cells in vivo were verified by tumorigenesis and metastasis assays. Subsequently, the target genes of CBD were predicted through the SwissTarget website and the genes differentially expressed in cells after CBD treatment were analyzed by microarray for intersection. The enrichment of the pathways after CBD treatment was analyzed by KEGG enrichment analysis, followed by western blot validation. Finally, rescue assays were used to validate the functions of genes as well as pathways in the growth and metastasis of HCC cells.

A significant weakening of the ability of HCC cells to grow and metastasize in vitro and in vivo was observed upon CBD treatment. Mechanistically, CBD reduced GRP55 expression in HCC cells, along with increased TP53 expression and blocked MAPK signaling activation. In CBD-treated cells, the anti-tumor of HCC cells was restored after overexpression of GRP55 or deletion of TP53. CBD inhibits the MAPK signaling activation and increases the TP53 expression by downregulating GRP55 in HCC cells, thereby suppressing the growth and metastasis of HCC cells.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38825256/

“CBD treatment inhibits the growth and metastasis of HCC cells in vitro and in vivo. CBD can be used as a clinical treatment for HCC.”

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304416524000941?via%3Dihub


Cannabidiol and Aza-BODIPY Coencapsulation for Photodynamic Therapy Enhancement in Liver Cancer Cells

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“Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and cannabidiol (CBD) have been explored for their potential in synergistic cancer treatment. In this study, we employed CBD oil as a lipid phase, encapsulated within AZB-I@Lec-T to create lipid-based nanoparticles. Here, CBD oil does two tasks: it acts as a pyroptosis agent to destroy liver cancer cells and as a lipid phase to dissolve the photosensitizer. It was expected that this system would offer synergistic therapy between CBD and PDT better than a single use of each treatment. With a series of in vitro experiments, the nanoparticles exhibited induced apoptosis in 68% of HepG2 cells treated with AZB-I@Lec-T@CBD and near-infrared (NIR)-light irradiation, reducing expression levels of antioxidant defense system genes. Furthermore, both components worked well in a submicromolar range when combined in our formulation. These results highlight the potential for amplifying primary cellular damage with the combination of PDT and CBD encapsulation, providing a promising therapeutic approach for liver cancer treatment guidelines.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38776245/

“CBD is one of the prospective therapeutic options in oncology that has been shown to reduce angiogenesis, cancer cell motility, adhesion, and invasion, as well as limit secondary metastatic cancer spread.”

“This study successfully demonstrated the potent cytotoxic synergy between photodynamic therapy (PDT) and cannabidiol (CBD) in cancer cells.

These findings underscore the potential for augmenting primary cellular damage using PDT and CBD coencapsulation, offering a promising avenue for future therapeutic strategies in cancer treatment protocols.”

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsabm.4c00239

Cannabidiol alleviates carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis in mice by regulating NF-κB and PPAR-α pathways

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“Liver fibrosis has become a serious public health problem that can develop into liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma and even lead to death.

Cannabidiol (CBD), which is an abundant nonpsychoactive component in the cannabis plant, exerts cytoprotective effects in many diseases and under pathological conditions.

In our previous studies, CBD significantly attenuated liver injury induced by chronic and binge alcohol in a mouse model and oxidative bursts in human neutrophils. However, the effects of CBD on liver fibrosis and the underlying mechanisms still need to be further explored. A mouse liver fibrosis model was induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) for 10 weeks and used to explore the protective properties of CBD and related molecular mechanisms. After the injection protocol, serum samples and livers were used for molecular biology, biochemical and pathological analyses.

The results showed that CBD could effectively improve liver function and reduce liver damage and liver fibrosis progression in mice; the expression levels of transaminase and fibrotic markers were reduced, and histopathological characteristics were improved. Moreover, CBD inhibited the levels of inflammatory cytokines and reduced the protein expression levels of p-NF-κB, NF-κB, p-IκBα, p-p38 MAPK, and COX-2 but increased the expression level of PPAR-α. We found that CBD-mediated protection involves inhibiting NF-κB and activating PPAR-α.

In conclusion, these results suggest that the hepatoprotective effects of CBD may be due to suppressing the inflammatory response in CCl4-induced mice and that the NF-κB and PPAR-α signaling pathways might be involved in this process.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38711461/

“In summary, we have shown that intraperitoneal injection of CBD exerts potent anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic activities in vivo. Moreover, we found that the first time CBD efficacy in reducing CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis by multiple mechanisms. These mechanisms may involve inhibition of NF-κB, activation of the PPAR-α pathway, and inhibition of oxidative stress. Based on these findings, CBD has the potential to be further developed as a treatment for hepatic fibrosis, especially as a combination therapy with the currently available therapies.”

https://www.ebm-journal.org/journals/experimental-biology-and-medicine/articles/10.3389/ebm.2024.10141/full

Effectiveness of cannabidiol (CBD) on histopathological changes and gene expression in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) model in male rats: the role of Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway

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“The third most prevalent malignancy to cause mortality is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is activated by binding to the transmembrane receptor Patched-1 (PTCH-1), which depresses the transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor Smoothened (SMO).

This study was performed to examine the preventative and therapeutic effects of cannabidiol in adult rats exposed to diethyl nitrosamine (DENA)-induced HCC.

A total of 50 male rats were divided into five groups of 10 rats each. Group I was the control group. Group II received intraperitoneal (IP) injections of DENA for 14 weeks. Group III included rats that received cannabidiol (CBD) orally (3-30 mg/kg) for 2 weeks and DENA injections for 14 weeks. Group IV rats received oral CBD for 2 weeks before 14 weeks of DENA injections. Group V included rats that received CBD orally for 2 weeks after their last injection of DENA. Measurements were made for alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), and alpha fetoprotein (AFP). Following total RNA extraction, Smo, Hhip, Ptch-1, and Gli-1 expressions were measured using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). A histopathological analysis of liver tissues was performed.

The liver enzymes, oxidant-antioxidant state, morphological, and molecular parameters of the adult male rat model of DENA-induced HCC showed a beneficial improvement after CBD administration.

In conclusion, by focusing on the Hh signaling system, administration of CBD showed a beneficial improvement in the liver enzymes, oxidant-antioxidant status, morphological, and molecular parameters in the DENA-induced HCC in adult male rats.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38296878/

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00418-023-02262-w

Cannabinol inhibits cell growth and triggers cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in cancer cells

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Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology

“Cancer is one of the most difficult diseases to treat and cure.”

“Cannabinol (CBN), one of the active ingredients from the cannabis plant, is the breakdown molecule of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) which is the most abundant psychoactive cannabinoid.”

“Cannabinol (CBN) is a weak-psychoactive cannabinoid and has been shown to exert several bio-logical activities. At the same time, not much is known about the anti-cancer activities of CBN. In this report, we characterized the anti-tumor effects of CBN on the glioma A172, liver cancer HepG2 and breast cancer HCC1806 cell lines.

We found that CBN reduces the proliferation of the analyzed cancer cells and modulates the level of cannabinoid receptors, including GPR18, CB2 and GPR55. Furthermore, CBN inhibits the ERK1/2 pathway in A172 and HepG2 cells, while suppressing the AKT pathway in HCC1086 cells. Moreover, CBN may cause apoptosis through downregulation of p21 and p27 as well as a cell cycle arrest at G1 or S-phase via decreasing the CDK1, CDK2, and cyclin E1 levels.

Taken together, these results offer new insights into the anti-cancer properties of CBN.”

“CBN, one of the weak-psychoactive cannabinoids, have demonstrated various medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, analgesic and even anti-tumor.”

“In this study, we revealed the antitumor activity of CBN in three different tumor cell lines, glioma A172, liver cancer HepG2 and breast cancer HCC1806 cell lines. We report that cannabinol inhibits proliferation of several cancer cell lines by regulation of the signaling pathways involving ERK and AKT as well as by altering the expression of cannabinoid receptors. Moreover, we also found that CBN induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest and partially uncovered underlying molecular mechanisms. Our findings provide novel information about the anti-cancer properties of CBN and justify further research to investigate the role of CBN as cancer therapeutic.”

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878818123000282

Cannabidiol Enhances Cabozantinib-Induced Apoptotic Cell Death via Phosphorylation of p53 Regulated by ER Stress in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

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“Cannabidiol (CBD), a primary constituent in hemp and cannabis, exerts broad pharmacological effects against various diseases, including cancer. Additionally, cabozantinib, a potent multi-kinase inhibitor, has been approved for treating patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Recently, there has been an increase in research on combination therapy using cabozantinib to improve efficacy and safety when treating patients. Here, we investigated the effect of a combination treatment of cabozantinib and CBD on HCC cells. CBD treatment enhanced the sensitivity of HCC cells to cabozantinib-mediated anti-cancer activity by increasing cytotoxicity and apoptosis. Phospho-kinase array analysis demonstrated that the apoptotic effect of the combination treatment was mainly related to p53 phosphorylation regulated by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress when compared to other kinases. The inhibition of p53 expression and ER stress suppressed the apoptotic effect of the combination treatment, revealing no changes in the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-8, or cleaved caspase-9. Notably, the effect of the combination treatment was not associated with cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) and the CNR2 signaling pathways. Our findings suggest that the combination therapy of cabozantinib and CBD provides therapeutic efficacy against HCC.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37568803/

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/15/15/3987